Criterion in Translation

I. English ---- Mandarin

Cognitive Models of Learning
Cognitive models views learning as an active. Dynamic, process in which learners select from incoming information, encode it into long-term memory, and retrieve it when needed. Cognitive theorists generally postulate two types of knowledge stores in long-term memory.
1. Declarative knowledge, which consists of information that know about, such as facts, believes, and events; and
2. Procedural knowledge, which is knowledge of how to perform skills and processes, such as reading, writing, math computation, and conducting science experiments.
This distinction is important because declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge are learned differently and should therefore be taught in different ways.

These cognitive learning models shed light on how learning strategies work: information processing, schema theory and Constructivism. These models support both the importance of learning strategies and the goal of helping students become independent learners.

Information Processing
Information processing theory examines the thinking processes associated with learning and remembering. These processes involve routine information from a person's immediate awareness into that persons' long-term memory. The theory suggests that learning requires processing new information by organizing it, elaborating on it, and connecting it with existing knowledge. This is precisely the purpose of cognitive strategies such as summarizing , differencing, and predicting.

Another critical component in information processing is metacognition, the “executive control” over thinking processes. The components of metacognition include both declarative knowledge about m one’s thinking processes and learning strategies as well as procedural knowledge about how to monitor and direct learning and thinking.
Schema Theory:Schema theory suggests that learning occurs as we try to organize and understand life experience according to our pre-existing knowledge. This pre-existing knowledge is stored in organized structures called schemata, which can be thought of a concept maps” of a central concept and its associated ides. Schemata can also be “scripts” for specific situations. Fro example, most of us have a schema for what will happen when we go to a fast-food restaurant. Having a schema, or relevant prior knowledge, allows us to make a predications, visualize events, draw inferences, monitoring comprehension, and create summaries.
Constructivism:Constructivism goes a step beyond schema theory by suggesting a more interactive relationship between new information and existing knowledge. According to this theory, learners actively construct meaning as they encounter new information. Learners use their background knowledge of w the world as an initial frame for relating to new information. They than use cognitive strategies as tools to help build meaning from the new information and from their background knowledge.

II. Mandarin ---- English

Dr. Sun Yat-Sen's Will

余致力國民革命，凡四十年，其目的在求中國之自由平等。積四十年之經驗，深知欲達到此目的，必須喚起民眾及聯合世界上以平等待我之民族，共同奮鬥。 現在革命尚未成功，凡我同志，務須依照余所著建國方略、建國大綱、三民主義及第一次全國代表大會宣言，繼續努力，以求貫徹。最近主張開國民會議及廢除不平等條約，尤須於最短期間，促其實現，是所至囑.